BRIEF SYNTHESIS WHILE TOMBOUCTOU IS A WORLD HERITAGE CENTRE.

Brief synthesis of the outstanding nature of Tombouctou.

Located at the gateway to the Sahara desert, within the confines of the fertile zone of the Sudan  and in an exceptionally  propitious site near to the river, Timbuktu is one of the cities of Africa whose name is the most heavily charged with history.

Founded in the 5th century, the economic and cultural apogee of Timbuktu came about during the15th and 16th centuries. It was an important centre for the diffusion of Islamic culture with the University of Sankore, with 180 Koranic schools and 25,000 students. It was also a crossroads and an important market place where the trading of manuscripts was negotiated,  and salt from Teghaza in the north, gold was sold, and cattle and grain from the south.

The Djingareyber Mosque, the initial construction of which dates back to Sultan Kankan Moussa, returning from a pilgrimage to Mecca, was rebuilt and enlarged between 1570 and 1583 by the Imam Al Aqib, the Qadi of Timbuktu, who added all the southern part and the wall surrounding the cemetery located to the west. The central minaret dominates the city and is one of the most visible landmarks of the urban landscape of Timbuktu.

Built in the 14th century, the Sankore Mosque was, like the Djingareyber Mosque, restored by the Imam Al Aqib between 1578 and 1582. He had the sanctuary demolished and rebuilt according to the dimensions of the Kaaba of the Mecca.

The Sidi Yahia Mosque, to the south of the Sankore Mosque, was built around 1400 by the marabout Sheik El Moktar Hamalla in anticipation of a holy man who appeared forty years later in the person of Cherif Sidi Yahia, who was then chosen as Imam. The mosque was restored in 1577-1578 by the Imam Al Aqib.

The three big Mosques of Djingareyber, Sankore and Sidi Yahia, sixteen mausoleums and holy public places, still bear witness to this prestigious past. The mosques are exceptional examples of earthen architecture and of traditional maintenance techniques, which continue to the present time.

Criterion (ii): The mosques and holy places of Timbuktu have played an essential role in the spread of Islam in Africa at an early period.

Criterion (iv): The three great mosques of Timbuktu, restored by the Qadi Al Aqib in the 16th century, bear witness to the golden age of the intellectual and spiritual capital at the end of the Askia dynasty.

Criterion (v): The three mosques and mausoleums are outstanding witnesses to the urban establishment of Timbuktu, its important role of commercial, spiritual and cultural centre on the southern trans-Saharan trading route, and its traditional characteristic construction techniques. Their environment has now become very vulnerable under the impact of irreversible change.

Integrity

The three mosques and the sixteen mausoleums comprising the property are a cliché of the former great city of Timbuktu that, in the 16th century, numbered 100,000 inhabitants. The vestiges of urban fabric are essential for their context. However, as indicated at the time of inscription of the property, rampant urbanization which is rife in Timbuktu, as in Djenne, is particularly threatening to the architecture, and the large public squares and markets. Contemporary structures have made irretrievable breaches in the original parcelling and obviously exceed the scale of the traditional buildings. This process is ongoing and most recently a new very large institute was built on one of the public squares, compromising the integrity of the Sankore Mosque. Urban development pressures, associated with the lack of maintenance and flooding, resulting from the heavy rains, threaten the coherence and integrity of the urban fabric and its relation to the property.

The three mosques are stable but the mausoleums require maintenance, as they are fragile and vulnerable in the face of irreversible changes in the climate and urban fabric.

Authenticity

The three mosques retain their value in architectural terms, traditional construction techniques associated to present-day maintenance, and their use. However, the Sankore Mosque has lost a part of the public square that was associated with it following the construction of the new Ahmed Baba Centre. Following this construction, the status of the mosque in the urban context and part of its signification have been compromised and require review and reconsideration.

Overall, because of the threat from the fundamental changes to the traditional architecture and the vestiges of the old city, the mosques and mausoleums risk losing their capacity to dominate their environment and to stand as witnesses to the once prestigious past of Timbuktu.

Protection and management requirements

The site of Timbuktu has three fundamental management tools: a Revitalization and Safeguarding Plan of the Old Town (2005), and a Strategic Sanitary Plan (2005), that are being implemented despite certain difficulties; and a Conservation and Management Plan (2006-2010) is being implemented and which shall be reassessed shortly.

The management system of the property is globally appropriate as its legal protection is jointly assured by the community of Timbuktu through management committees of the mosques, the cultural Mission of Timbuktu and the Management and Conservation Committee of the Old Town of Timbuktu. This mechanism is strengthened by two practical functioning modalities, initiated in consultation with the World Heritage Centre: the Town Planning Regulation and the Conservation Manual. The specific long-term objectives are the extension of the buffer zone by approximately 500 m to assure the protection of the inscribed property ; the development of the historic square of Sankore to integrate corrective measures proposed by the Committee at its 33rd session and by the reactive monitoring mission of March 2010 ; the extension of the inscribed property to include the entire Timbuktu Medina ; the development of an integrated conservation and sustainable and harmonious management project for the site, in the wider framework of development of the urban commune and in close cooperation with the elected members of the Territorial Communities of Timbuktu and the development partners ; the active conservation of the mausoleums.

Long Description

The three great mosques of Timbuktu, restored by the Qadi Al Aqib in the 16th century, bear witness to the golden age of the intellectual and spiritual capital at the end of the Askia dynasty. They played an essential part in the spread of Islam in Africa at an early period.

Timbuktu is thought to have been founded towards the end of the 5th century of the Hegira by a group of Imakcharen Tuaregs who, having wandered 250 km south of their base, established a temporary camp guarded by an old woman, Buktu. Gradually, Tim-Buktu (the place of Buktu) became a small sedentary village at the crossroads of several trade routes. Quickly converted to Islam (the two great mosques of Djingareyber and Sankore appeared during the Mandingue period), the market city of Timbuktu reached its apex under the reign of the Askia (1493-1591). It then became an important centre of Koranic culture with the University of Sankore and numerous schools attended, it is said, by some 25,000 students. Scholars, engineers and architects from various regions in Africa rubbed shoulders with wise men and marabouts in this intellectual and religious centre. Early on, Timbuktu attracted travellers from far-away countries.

Although the mosques of El-Hena, Kalidi and Algoudour Djingareye have been destroyed, three essential monuments - the mosques of Djingareyber, Sankore and Sidi Yahia - fortunately still stand as testimony to the grandeur of Timbuktu.

The Mosque of Djingareyber was built by the sultan Kankan Moussa after his return in 1325 from a pilgrimage to Mecca. Between 1570 and 1583 the Qadi of Timbuktu, Imam Al Aqib, had it reconstructed and enlarged, adding the whole southern part and the wall enclosing the graveyard situated to the west. The central minaret dominates the town and is the most visible landmark of the urban landscape. A smaller minaret on the eastern facade completes the profile of the Great Mosque which has three inner courtyards.

Like Djingareyber, the Mosque of Sankore, built during the Mandingue period, was restored by the Imam Al Aqib between 1578 and 1582. He had the sanctuary demolished and rebuilt according to the measurements of the Kaaba at Mecca, which he had taken with a rope during his pilgrimage.

The Mosque of Sidi Yahia, south of Sankore, was probably built around 1400 by the marabout Sheikh El Moktar Hamalla in anticipation of a holy man who appeared 40 years later in the person of Cherif Sidi Yahia, who was then chosen as Imam. It was restored in 1577-78 by the Imam Al Aqib. Apart from the mosques, the World Heritage site comprises 16 cemeteries and mausolea, essential elements in a religious system as, according to popular belief; they constitute a rampart that shields the city from all misfortune. The most ancient mausoleum is that of Sheikh Abul Kassim Attouaty, who died in year 936 of the Hegira (1529) and was buried 150 m west of the city with 50 ulemas and holy persons from Touat. Equally noteworthy and from the same general period are the graves of the scholar Sidi Mahmoudou, who died in year 955 of the Hegira (1547) and of Qadi Al Aqfb, the restorer of mosques, who died in year 991 of the Hegira (1583).

http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/119/

UNESCO - TOMBOUCTOU WORLD HERITAGE CENTRE.

Timbuktu

Home of the prestigious Koranic Sankore University and other madrasas, Timbuktu was an intellectual and spiritual capital and a centre for the propagation of Islam throughout Africa in the 15th and 16th centuries. Its three great mosques, Djingareyber, Sankoreû and Sidi Yahia, recall Timbuktu's golden age. Although continuously restored, these monuments are today under threat from desertification.

A Mosque in Tombouctou - more than 200 years old.

THE UNIVERSITY OF TOMBOUCTOU.

The university of Timbuktu.

Timbuktu University academic learning centers are: the departments of Jingaray Ber, Sidi Yahya, and Sankore. Not only did the students sought knowledge at these centers, but they also purified their souls through the sciences of Islam. Islam brides leaders that are God fearing, just, honest, trustworthy and of excellent moral character. Graduate students were the embodiment of the teachings of the Holy Qur’an and the traditions of the Prophet of Islam peace and blessing be upon him. Around the 12th century, the University of Timbuktu had an attendance of 25, 000 students in a city which had a population of 100, 000 people. The students came from all corners of the African continent in search of excellence in knowledge and trade. On graduation day, students were given Turbans. The turban symbolizes divine light, wisdom, knowledge and excellent moral conduct. The turban represents the demarcation line between knowledge and ignorance. The knots and circles of the turban represent the name Allah. This means that graduate students know the divine obligations and responsibilities they need to discharge honorably in their communities and toward their fellowmen.

The University programs are:

1. First year or the Qu’ranic school

Students must commit the Holy Qur’an to memory, perfect their Arabic skills and be good communicators. Students were also introduced to basics in other sciences of knowledge.

2. Second year or general studies

The memorization of the Holly Qu’ran is the foundation of Islamic knowledge as all the Islamic sciences are rooted and derived from the Qur’an which constitute the source of authencity and authority. Students are introduced to the different branches of Islamic knowledge. These sciences are: grammar, commentaries of the Qur’an, the hadiths or the Prophetic narrations, jurisprudence, mathematics, geography, history, Islamic schools of thoughts, physics, astronomy, chemistry, sciences of the purification of the heart and soul, etc.

The students are also instructed in trade, Islamic business code and ethics. The university offers classes in carpentry, farming, fishing, construction, shoe making, tailoring, navigation etc. This is very important because as an Imam or Islamic scholar one has to impart honest and unbiased judgments in settling legal issues. This integrity will be compromised if the Imam or the scholar living expenses are being paid by the rich people. In order for the Imam or scholar to be just and fair in discharging legal decrees, he has to earn his own honest income.

3. Third year

The curriculum is highly specialized. The students sit in classes of renown professors. Sankore was one of the most important departments of the University in this regard. At this level, the students are doing graduate work comparable to any Islamic university in the world. At this level, students engage in research work. For instance, the professors will give students questions on different subjects and topics to be researched. Each student, then, will present, argue and defend his position in front of the professors and other students who will storm him with a flow of though questions. Students go from department to department and from professor to professor in search of knowledge. Most students at this stage would find a Shayk or master and study under his guidance. The Shayk will purge the student of all his Shaytanic or lower self characteristics and tendencies and would ensure that the graduate student will be a good Islamic model for the generation to come. Graduation was based both on the Islamic character of the students as well as his academic excellence.

4. Fourth year or the circle of knowledge

It is here that most of the important and crutial issues of Islam are being discussed. The caliphs or Muslims state leaders such as Askia Mohammad of the Songhai Empire, Mansa Musa of the Malian Empire, Shayk Amadu of the Fulani caliphate of Massina, The Amirs and sultans of the provinces of the Sudan would send crutial questions to the Ulemas or scholars of Timbuktu. The scholars will make copies of these questions or issues and distribute them among the members of the circle of knowledge. Each scholar will research the issues and then they would all get together to discuss and debate their findings and commentaries and thus put together a manuscript dealing in detail with the specific questions or issues. They then issue a Fatwa or legal Islamic ruling by which the Islamic government authorities will abide.

There was also the case of one Muslim who was wealthy and generous. Whoever was in need in Timbuktu will go to him and secured a loan. As time went by, the Imam of Jingaray Ber noticed that the number of people attending the Mosque was increasingly getting lower each Friday. Jingaray Ber is the only Masjid open on Fridays in Timbuktu. The entire population converges to this famous Mosque. The Imam inquired about the cause of the lower attendance and has found that most people of Timbuktu owed money to the generous, wealthy Muslim man. As a result they decided to stay home for fear of seeing the generous man at the Masjid. The Scholars were facing a dilemma. Should the generous Muslim be prevented from attending the Friday prayers when this is an Islamic obligation? Or should the debtees be forced to pay him back? Or should the generous man be forced to forgive the debts? The matter was submitted to the circle of knowledge who decided that the wealthy man should stay home or forgive the debt. The wealthy man was called in. He forgave the debtees and said he had no idea that the lower attendance was because of him.

A LISTING OF THE IMAMS OR PROFESSORS OF EACH UNIVERSITY

The Professors or Imams of Jingaray Ber

Among the professors and Imams of Jingaray Ber are: Kaatib Musa, Sidi Abd Allah Al Balbali, Sidi Abu Al Kassim Tuwaati, Sidi Mansur Al Fezani, Ibrahim z-Zulfi, Ahmad the father of Nana Surgu ( meaning the father of Nana the tuareg woman ), Sidi Ali Al Jazuli, Siddiq ibn Mohammad Ta’alla, Uthman ibn Al Hassan ibn Al Hajj at Tishiti, Mohammad Gidadu al Fulani, Imam Ahmad ibn Imam Saddiq, Abd Arahman ibn Sayeed, Baba Alpha and Abderahman Ben Assuyuti the actual Imam.

The scholars, professors and Imams of Sankore

A grant by a wealthy local women made this department of the university one of the most famous and leading learning center in Timbuktu. The Sanhaja scholars settled in the Sankore district around the 13th century. They significantly contributed to the intellectual and commercial life of the city. Among them are: Abu Al Baraaka, Mohammad Bagayogo, Ahmed Baba, And Ag Mohammad, Al Aqib ibn Faqi Muhmud, Abu Bakr ibn Ahmad Biru, Abd Arahman ibn Faqi Mahmud, Mohammad ibn Mohammad Kara and the actual Imam etc.

The scholars, Imams and professors of Sidi Yahya

The Masjid of Sidi Yahya was built by Mohammad Naddi, one of the governor of the city appointed by the Mandika rulers. Mohammad Naddi was a friend of the Saint Sidi Yahya Al Andulusi. Sidi Yahya was the first Imam, scholar, professor and saint of this Masjid. After him, there were: Mohammad Bagayogo, Saddiq, Mohammad Ben Al Wangari, Mohammad ben Sayeed, Mohammad ben Ahmadu, Ahmadu ben Abdallah, Saleh ben Mohammad, Salmay Al Wangari, Bagno Wangari, Baba Wangari, Ahmadu Bagno, Baba Alpha Umar, Al Imam Ahmadu, and the existing Imam Baba Mahmud Hassay, may Allah bless them for their valuable contributions.

THE MANUSCRIPTS LIBRARY OF TOMBOUCTOU.

The library of Timbuktu.

Here is a listing of the most famous libraries in Timbuktu from the 15th century to the 19th century:

In the city of Bamba

The library of Shereef Al-Muktar Ben El Marzuq, the library of Shereef Abd Allah Ben Al Muktar, the library of Sheik Sidiqi Al Galladi, the library of Qadi Mohammad Al Taher.

In the city of Gao

The libraries of Kel Essuk. These include, the library of Sheik Al Hader Ag Hammada, the library of Sheik Anara Ag Hammada, the library of Sheik Zaynudeen Ag Hammada.

In the city of Rharous

The library of Ghayraghu, the library of Mohammad Al Muktar Al Ansari

In the city of Ber

The library of Sheik Al Munzer, the library of the Kel Inakunder

In the city of Timbuktu

The library of Bul’Araf, the library of Mohammad Mahmud Ben Sheik, the library of

Al Qadi Issa, the library of the Ahl Sidi Ali, the library of Mohammad Ben Tutta, the library of the Ahl Bujbeyha, the library of the Ahl Arawan, the library of Abdarahman Sidi Idie, the library of Alpha Salum, the library of Mulay Ahmed Baber, the library of Sheikna Sidi Ali Al Jakani, the library of Sheikna Bulkher, the library of Mohammad Al Taher Sherfi, the library of Mohammad Bagayago, the library of Mama Haidara, the library of Mahmud Al Kati etc.

SCHOLARS OF TOMBOUCTOU.

Scholars of Timbuktu.

Below is a brief description of the spiritual and moral qualities of the scholars of Timbuktu. They were many in numbers that it will be impossible to list all them with their spiritual state and attributes. Allah has blessed the city of Timbuktu with such a great number of scholars and Walies or Saints. Timbuktu is boasting for having been blessed with 333 Walies or friends of Allah, The Most High.

All the scholars of Timbuktu shared the following divine qualities. They combined the practice of the Qur’anic and Hadiths commands with the sciences of the purification of the heart, thus of the soul. In other words, through the practice of Tassawuf or purification of the heart of all Shaytanic characteristics, they were able to walk in the footsteps of the Prophet Mohammad, Allah peace and blessing be upon him. As a result, they have experienced spiritual states and Divines insights which are not accessible by ordinary worshipers with blind hearts. They adhered to righteousness, piety, self denial, truth, devotional worships, fear of Allah, excellence of character, spiritual tranquillity, eminence, and sincerity in all their actions. They are Maliki scholars and followed the Tarika or spiritual path of the Qaadiriya. The founder of this inner spiritual order is Sheik Abd Al Qaadir Al Gaylani, may Allah bless him. He is a descendent of Prophet Mohammad peace be upon him. He followed in the path of love and sincerity of the Messenger of Allah and achieved the highest degrees of nearness to Allah, the Most High.

Modibo Mohammad Al Kaburi

He is a fulani, a Jurist and Judge. He was fortunate to be a companion to many righteous scholars of Sankore University. He was the scholar who developed the curriculum of Sankore University. He is also known for his pious and devotional character.

Al Qadi Al Hajj

He was an eminent Jurist from Walata. Al Qadi was blessed by Allah with the function of Chief Judge of Timbuktu. He ordered the people of Timbuktu to recite half of a “hizb” or part of the Qur’an after noon and evening prayers.

Abu Abdallah And Ag Mohammad ibn Mohammad ibn Uthman

He is a tuareg Jurist and a library of knowledge. He is a virtuous and righteous man. He is the ancestor of Ahmed Baba Es Sudane. He was appointed Judge of Timbuktu.

Sheik Sidi Abu Al Barakaat Mahmud ibn Umar ibn Aqit

He is also known as Sheik Al Islam Abu Al Barakaat. He was the Supreme Judge of Timbuktu, Imam and the Dean of Sankore University. He was firm, pious, humble, modest and had an excellent mastery of the Arabic language.

Al Moctar Ag Mohammad ibn Utman

He is known as N-Nahawi, meaning the grammarian. He was brilliant and was endowed by Allah, The Most High, with knowledge in all Islamic branches.

Abd Arahman Ag Mohammad ibn Utman

All the scholars with Ag, meaning son of, are Tuareg scholars. He was a learned professor, gentle and possessed Taqwa or fear of Allah.

Abu Al Abbas Ahmad Buryu ibn And Ag Mohamad ibn Utman

Humble, Yearned for the hereafter, pious and a great house of knowledge. Most scholars of Sankore drunk from his abundant fountain of knowledge

Abu Abdallah And Ag Mohammad ibn Al Moctar ‘n-Nahawi

He was appointed as the Imam and Dean of Sankore by the Qadi Mahmud. Like his father N-Nahawi, he was known for his excellent command of the Arabic language. Every year during the month of Ramadan, he gave captivating and fascinating commentaries of the kitab Ashiffa of Qadi Iyad. The Ashiffa is a spiritual biography and mission of the Prophet of Islam, peace be upon him.

Al Moctar ibn Mohammad ibn Al Moctar ‘n-Nahawi ibn And Ag Mohammad

He was a Jurist, loved singing the praises of the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace. He spent a lot of wealth for the festivities of Maulud or the birthday of the Prophet peace and blessing be upon him. He was a true lover of the Prophet, thus of Allah, The Most High.

Ahmed Baba Es Sudane

Descendent of Umar ibn Mohammad Aqit the tuareg. He liked to be called Ahmed Baba the black. At an early age, he dedicated his time to learning until he surpassed all his pears and contemporaries. He was the matchless Jurist, scholar and Imam of his time. His reputation spread all over Sub-Sahara Africa and North Africa. The Jurists of Timbuktu sought his advise in maters pertaining to legal decisions. He was a warehouse of Islamic knowledge. He firmly stood on truth in face of the Amirs and Kings. He had a library of 1600 manuscripts which was plundered during the Moroccan invasion of Timbuktu. He was deported to Fez in 1593. He authored 60 books, that is more than what Shakespeare wrote. He was called standard of standards by the Moroccan. He was also the student of the eminent black scholar Mohammad Bagayogo. He wrote excellent books on theology, grammar, history and Jurisprudence.

Mohammad Bagayogo Es Sudane Al Wangari Al Timbukti

His ancestors were the black scholars Wangari of the blessed city of Jenne. He was the Sheik and professor of Ahmed Baba Es Sudan. He was born in Timbuktu. He did all his studies in Timbuktu. He was one of the most eminent professors of both Sidi Yahya and Sankore Universities. He was without doubt a veritable Doctor of Islamic sciences. This was confirmed when he stopped in Cairo on his way to Mecca. The scholars of Al Azhar University conferred on him the title of Doctor. He was a Jurist well versed in all branches of Islamic knowledge. He had a very busy schedule and loved imparting knowledge to people with great patience. He would loan his books to his students and friends and would not ask them back. He was sincere in his intentions and actions. He loved people and people loved him. He was given the position of the supreme Judge of Timbuktu which he kindly declined for fear of being unjust toward people. He lectured in all the Universities of the city. He wrote his own personal copies of the Holy Qur’an which are today with his descendent Baba Muhmud Hassay the actual Imam of Sidi Yahya Masjid. He possessed absolute mastery in the areas of Jurisprudence, Arabic grammar, Prophetic traditions, Logic etc. He imparted knowledge to his students as well as received knowledge from them. He was humble and accepted truth wherever it came from.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TOMBOUCTOU MANUSCRIPTS.

Significance of the Manuscripts

The manuscripts shed light on African history and have potential to influence contemporary Malian society and the world beyond. They hold tremendous scholarly, diplomatic as well as economic significance.

1. Scholarly Significance of the Manuscripts

To this day there are living scholars in Timbuktu descended from a long lineage dedicated to the preservation, study and teaching of the manuscripts. These scholars belong to the ‘Circle of Knowledge’ a centuries-old committee comprised of the most knowledgeable Muslim Imams, scholars, and professors in Timbuktu. Also known as 'Ambassadors of Peace' they are best equipped to interpret the manuscripts for our times. These living scholars possess the deepest understanding of manuscripts content and are convinced that their potential usefulness to pressing social issues in Mali have not yet been tapped.

Charles C. Stewart, History Professor at the University of Illinois, USA, noted that materials like those uncovered in Mali support scholars who battle the older image of Africa as a continent where civilization was unknown before the coming of the European. They are the building blocks for redressing the racism still inherent in many Westerner’s views of Africa.

The ‘discovery’ of the Timbuktu manuscripts is like that of the Dead-Sea Scroll, or you could think of it as like coming upon another Anglo-Saxon Chronicle that gave us a new view of the early history of England - Rex Sean O’Fahey, Professor of History, University of Bergen, Norway

I was in Timbuktu, and a young man who knew my interest in African history invited me to see the family library. Leading me into a small room in his modest house, the man lifted the lid on an old trunk filled with manuscripts. By the third one, my eyes were popping out of my head…. I’d never seen anything quite like them before. Nor had any other Westerner-and, precisely for that reason, the contents of that trunk are expected to profoundly alter long-accepted views of African history and civilization, many shaped by racial prejudice rather than scientific inquiry. Even among scholars, Africa often is dismissed as a continent lacking written records, one of the hallmarks of civilizations - John Hunwick, Professor of History and Religion, Northwestern University

2. Diplomatic Significance of the Manuscripts

The manuscripts provide evidence that traditional African thought and Islamic faith, through the efforts of the African scholars, successfully guided leaders of former Malian empires in governance based on tolerance, the multi-ethnic state and peaceful means for resolving conflicts. This cultural legacy in sub-Saharan Africa, and particularly Mali, is predominantly dormant now but poised for a revival through the manuscripts. Today, international recognition of this highly developed, peaceful African, cultural and Islamic legacy is needed perhaps more than ever before in history.

(The manuscripts are) an eloquent testimony of the important role Mali played in regional commerce during the period of the ancient empires. Through our support of this project (‘Day of the Book’ event in Bamako), the government and people of the United States would like to show support for the culture and traditions of Mali and for these treasures of Islam - Michael E. Ranneberger, United States Ambassador to Mali

The Malian government has preserved and translated (a few selected) Islamic manuscripts from Timbuktu written in the 13th and 14th centuries teaching tolerance and conflict resolution. The ancient manuscripts were on display January 10 at the American Cultural Center in Bamako – Statement from the U.S. Embassy in Jakarta, Indonesia that chose to celebrate the exhibition of manuscripts in Mali

In a report from the United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research, Robin Poulton and Ibrahim Youssouf reflect on the continuing political and ethnic tensions in northern Mali.

Following the 1991-1992 revolution that brought in a democratic government, the new President was faced with … (on-going civil conflict in) the North. Realizing further violence would only dismantle their fragile government, President Konare encouraged a system whereby communities of the region spearheaded a plan to not only disarm rebel troops but also encourage their reintroduction into society. Such community-based peace actions have not only been a source of empowerment for communities but have also encouraged the growth of local peace-building processes to maintain the peace. However, to maintain the peace measures are still needed which can address better management of and access to resources and investment in the infrastructure of the country. By ending insecurity in resources and by building community action, there is potential for a long-term peace.

The writers point out that tensions in the north have diminished but are still simmering. Hundreds of people, predominantly Tamashek but Songhay as well, were killed. Tens of thousand were displaced as refugees to cities and surrounding countries. It was a conflict that created bloodshed among diverse peoples who for centuries lived together in peace and harmony tolerating their differences under the strong guidance of their traditions. Rallying all peoples of the region today around the manuscripts as a common cultural heritage will help them move past differences and cultivate together the economic opportunities that manuscripts preservation and promotion can offer the region. Attention must be placed on the urban centers as well as rural villages and nomadic encampments where indigenous traditions and lifeways are still most evident and best preserved.

3. Economic & Social Significance of the Manuscripts

These texts can be the catalyst for economic development in northern Mali by re-establishing book industry employment in the areas of manuscripts conservation, research and eventually publishing and printing. Stabilizing and rebuilding the cultural heritage sites will provide further employment as well as the improving the capacity of the former university structures to house book-related activities. In addition, increased national and international interest in Timbuktu will result in a dramatic rise in tourism and demand for crafts by local artisans and musicians.

As the physical and human infrastructure re-builds, a revived University of Timbuktu is possible, with both its fixed centers and ambulant scholars. It could provide training to Malians and Africans throughout the continent with specialization, as in the past, on the philosophy and practices of authentic African approaches to fair and peaceful management of governments and commerce. The University would thus fully re-unite the main economic pillars of the Timbuktu economy, namely learning and commerce. Long-term it could be a key to sparking greater integrity, effectiveness and confidence in African governance and business.

Economic activities in manuscripts preservation, publishing, tourism and, commodities exports can indeed begin to flourish in the north on a level perhaps unmatched since the 16th century. While these are realistic expectations, to assure that the peoples of the region benefit rather than just the few or overseas interests, a clear set of economic policies need to be developed and enforced. In its Mandate issued to the THI in June 2002, the Malian government recognizes the risks of inappropriate exploitation, and expects that THI develop and practice such policies.

PEOPLE OF TOMBOUCTOU.

People of Timbukru

The city is essentially the home to the Kel Tamasheq, Songhay and Arabs. These are the main ethnic groups who are the original settlers of Timbuktu.

The Kel Tamasheq are nomadic people and desert dwellers. Their ancestors are the Messufa, Lamtuna, and Judaala. These are the Sanhaja groups who crossed the Sahara desert to find themselves in Sub Sahara Africa. The Sanhaja trace their lineage back to the King Himyar who is from southern Arabia or Yeman. The Kel Tamasheq are the founders of the city of Timbuktu. They contributed scholarly and commercially to the legacy of Timbuktu. Today, the Kel Tamasheq live in Mali and Niger.

The Songhay people are sedentary, farmers and fishermen. Their original capitol was Kukya on the bank of the Niger River. They are the founders of the Songhai Empire and have brought a lot of prosperity, prestige and reputation to the black people. They have spread Islam in West Africa. They are generous, noble, hardworking, excellent and courageous warriors. The Songhay Empire was one of the most democratic social entity of its time.

The Arabs arrived in Northern Africa in the 7th century. They carried the noble message of Islam to Africa. From North Africa, they reached Sub-Sahara Africa where the Emperor of Ghana was impressed by their moral character and decided to hire them as administrators in his government. They managed his affairs so well that he decided to embrace Islam. They have reached Timbuktu through the Trans-Saharan caravan trade. In Timbuktu, they settled in Sankore around the 13th and 14th centuries. They are excellent traders and Islamic scholars. Their presence in Timbuktu has added more flavor to the already flourishing intellectual life.

HISTORY OF TOMBOUCTOU - PART II

History of Timbuktu - A Multicultural African Legacy.

Most people think of Timbuktu as the remotest place on earth. Others even think of Timbuktu as being a legend or place which existed only in people’s imagination. Timbuktu is located in the present day Republic of Mali at the edge of the Sahara desert.

Timbuktu was founded by the Tuareg Imashagan or Kel Tamasheq in the 11th century. The Kel Tamasheq roamed the desert during the rainy season in search of grazing lands for their herds and camels. During the dry season, however, they camped a few miles from the Niger river in search of water and grass for their live stock.

Whenever the desert becomes green, the Turareg will leave their heavy goods with an old Tamasheq women called Tin Abutut who shortly thereafter became a warehouse or a depot for commercial goods transiting from the desert. The city of Timbuktu has taken its name from this famous black lady.

The historic town of Timbuktu is located at the precise point where the Niger flows northward into the southern edge of the Sahara desert. As a result of its unique geographical position, Timbuktu has been a natural meeting point of Songhai, Wangara, Fulani, Tuareg and Arabs. According to the inhabitants of Timbuktu, gold came from the south, the salt from the north and Divine knowledge from Timbuktu. Timbuktu is also the cross-road where the camel met the canoe. It is to this privilege position that the city owes much of its historical dynamism. From the 11th century and onward, Timbuktu became an important port where goods from West Africa and North Africa were traded. Goods coming the Mediterranean shores and salt were traded in Timbuktu for gold.

The prosperity of the city attracted African and Arabs who were both scholars and merchants. This unique combination of scholarship and business were the cornerstones that made Timbuktu a city of wealth and truth and therefore a booming desert port.

Salt, books and gold were the main commodities that were traded in Timbuktu. Salt was extracted from the mines of Tegaza and Taoudenit in the north, gold from the immense gold mines of the Boure and Banbuk and books were the refined work of black and Arabs scholars.

Timbuktu flourished as a result of its strategic position. It is here in Timbuktu that African merchants from Djenne traded with the Kel Tamasheq nomads and the Arabs from the north. The Kel Tamasheq and the Jenne Merchants were the first settlers of Timbuktu.

The Adobe structure of the houses in Timbuktu was the product of African and Arabs architecture. Trade and knowledge were at their height. The capture and destruction of the empire of Ghana by the king of Sosso cause a mass exodus of scholars from Walata to Timbuktu.

By the 12th century, Timbuktu became a celebrated center of Islamic learning and a

commercial establishment. Timbuktu had a university with three main renown departments and 180 Quranic schools. These are the department of Sankore, the department of Jingaray Ber and the department of Sidi Yahya.

This was the golden age of Africa. Books were not only written in Timbuktu, but they were also imported and copied there. There was an advanced local book copying industry in the city. The universities and private libraries contained unparalleled scholarly works. The famous scholar of Timbuktu Ahmad Baba who was among those deported to Morocco said that his library of 1600 books had been plundered, and his library, according to him, was one of the smaller in the city.

Timbuktu was a veritable melting pot and hub of knowledge and commerce. The city welcomed everyone. On April 20th 1628, the French explorer Rene Caille reached the legendary city of Timbuktu. Rene Caille used to say about Timbuktu: “ When I enter this mysterious city, I was overwhelmed by an incredible feeling of satisfaction, I had never felt such a feeling before in my life and my joy was extreme.” The German explorer Henry Barth had a similar experience. Today, the city is still welcoming visitors from faraway lands. The travelers have said that Timbuktu is the Rome of the Sudan, the Athena of Africa and the Mecca of the Sahara.

To sum it up, Timbuktu was the city of Divine light, the city of knowledge, the city of trade an the city of hospitality.

The booming economy of Timbuktu attracted the attention of the Emperor of Mali, Mansa Mussa also known as Kan Kan Mussa. He captured the city in 1325. As a Muslim, Mansa Mussa was impressed with the Islamic legacy of Timbuktu. On his return from Mecca, Mans Mussa brought with him an Egyptian architect by the name of Abu Es Haq Es Saheli. The architect was paid 200 kg of gold to built Jingaray Ber or the Friday prayers Mosque. Mansa Musa also built a royal palace or Madugu in Timbuktu.

In addition, the Emperor invited Arabs scholars to Timbuktu. To his great surprise, the Emperor realized that these scholars were unqualified to engage in debates with the black scholars of Timbuktu. Abd Arahman Atimmi, for example, who though of himself as being an Arab scholar realized that he had such an inferior academic knowledge compared to Timbuktu’s scholars that he decided to migrate to Marrakech to complete his prerequisites so he can sit in the classes as a student.

Mansa Mussa pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324 had made Mali known worldwide. The Emperor took with him 12 tones of pure gold and a large caravan of 60,000 men on horses and camels. He had so much gold with him that when he stopped in Egypt, the Egyptian currency lost its value and as result the name of Mali and Timbuktu appeared on the 14th century world map.

His brother Abu Bakar the II decided to find a way by the Atlantic ocean to go to Mecca. Abu Bakar and his maritime expedition left the shores of Senegal and sailed in the Atlantic Ocean. They encountered so much difficulties and challenges that they came back to Senegal. Abu Bakar reorganized his expedition, took enough provisions and a huge army with him. This expedition has never been seen again. Today, there is a strong historical evidence pointing to the possibility that this Malian prince was the first one to discover America. In Brazil for instance, their is a presence of the mandinka language, traditions and customs.

In 1339, The Mossi king invaded Timbuktu. The Mossi caused a lot of corruption, killing and destruction in the city. The Mandika dynasty, however, succeeded in repulsing the invaders. Timbuktu remained under the protection of the descendants of Mansa Musa until 1434 when the Tuareg under the leadership of Akil Akamalwal invaded and captured the city. Akil was very pious. He respected the Ulemas or scholars. Akil reappointed Mohammad Naddi, a Sanhaja Tuareg as the governor of the city. When Mohammad Naddi died, Akil appointed his oldest son Umar to take his place. The Tuareg, later on, however, spread so much injustice, corruption and tyranny, that Umar ibn Mohammad Naddi, the new governor of Timbuktu sought the help of Soni Ali Ber, ruler of the Songhai Empire with his base in Gao.

In 1469, Soni Ali conquered the city of Timbuktu. Akil fled the city. Soni Ali put to death so many scholars that most them fled to Walata which is the actual Republic of Mauritania. This is the reason why many of the manuscripts of Timbuktu are found in Mauritania today. One of the generals of Soni Ali who is a devout Muslim by the name of Askia Mohammad could not tolerate the tragic treatment Soni inflicted on the Ulemas or scholars of Timbuktu.

The Prince of the Songhai Askia Mohammad overthrew Soni Ali in 1493. Askia Mohammad recomforted the scholars, financially rehabilitated them and stood by them. In fact for all Islamic legal rulings on how to run the state, Askia Mohammad turned to these scholars. There are manuscripts in Timbuktu today where the answers to the questions of Askia are recorded. Under the Askia dynasty, Timbuktu prospered both intellectually and trade wise until 1591 when the Moroccan army under the leadership of Pasha Mahmud ibn Zarqun sacked the city of Timbuktu. The Moroccan army plundered the wealth of the city, burned the libraries, put to death many scholars who resisted them and deported many to Fez and Marrakech including the eminent scholar of Timbuktu Ahmed Baba Es Sudane, meaning Ahmed Baba the black as he is preferred to be called. The scholars of Timbuktu were righteous, devout and were not afraid of anything accept Allah, the Most High. It was in this context that when Pasha Mahmud tried to deceive the scholars by having them sign a treacherous treaty, the black eminent scholar and fearless professor of Sidi Yahya University, Mohammad Bagayogo objected and told the Pasha: “ I would rather have you cut my hand up to the shoulder than to bear a false testimony.” A lot of manuscripts left the city of Timbuktu under the Moroccan invasion to find their way to Fez and Marrakech.

In 1893, with the colonization of West Africa by France, Timbuktu was brought under the French rule until in 1960 when Mali became independent. Many of the manuscripts of Timbuktu are in the museums and universities of France.

TOMBOUCTOU MANUSCRIPT LIBRARIES - AL-WANGARI LIBRARY.

The Al-Wangari Manuscript Library

Al-Wangari Library.

The al-Wangari Manuscript Library was officially opened on September 26 2003 and is overseen by Mukhtar bin Yayha al-Wangari. The library consists of approximately 3000 manuscripts and is based on the original library of Shaykh Muhammad Baghayogho, a distinguished 16th-century shaykh and jurist originally from the town of Jenne.

This collection contains many works by Sudanese and Moroccan scholars. The oldest document consists of copied parts of the Qur’an and is dated to 1695. Besides religious texts, it also contains some important historical documents.

The library was established sometime between Shaykh Baghayogho al-Wangari’s settlement in Timbuktu and his death in 1594. Although the library was preserved by the shaykh’s son and then several generations after him, it ultimately dissolved over time. The manuscripts were scattered amongst various family members in Jenne, Goundam and also Timbuktu.

It was through the efforts of Mukhtar bin Yayha al-Wangari that a comprehensive attempt to recollect these manuscripts was made. Through research involving oral testimony and primary written documentation, as well as meetings with the entire family, he managed to revive Shaykh Muhammad Baghayogho’s library.

Al-Wangari Manuscript Library.

TOMBOUCTOU MANUSCRIPT LIBRARIES - FONDO KA'TI LIBRARY.

The Timbuktu Andalusian Library (Fondo Ka’ti)

Fondo Ka'ti Library.

The Biblioteca Andalusi de Tombuctu, less elaborately referred to as the Fondo Ka’ti Library was officially opened on September 27 2003, with generous funding from the Spanish government because of the links of the Ka’ti family, the founders of the library, with Spain. The library was started by Ismael Diadié Haidara, descendent of Mahmud Ka’ti, the famous Timbuktu chronicler renowned for his Ta'rikh al-Fattash. Ismael claims that his paternal family descends from Roderique the Goth, the Christian ruler of Spain at the time of the arrival of the Arabs under the leadership of Tariq ibn Ziyad. The Christian rulers were split over whether to welcome the Arabs or to oppose them and he explains that his ancestors welcomed the Arabs and were amongst the first to embrace Islam. His ancestor ‘Ali ibn Ziyad finally left Andalusia in the 1460’s and settled in the village of Goumbou, on the border of Mauritania and Mali. ‘Ali ibn Ziyad married Khadija, sister to the Songhai ruler, Askia Muhammad. In this way Spanish, Arab and African lineages were mingled and finally found abode in Timbuktu.

The library houses the manuscript collection and Ismael’s office, in addition to an exhibition hall and lodging facilities for visiting scholars. Ismael’s collection of manuscripts was gathered from the various branches of the Ka’ti family. He endeavours to collect manuscripts that deal with his Spanish ancestry and concentrates mainly on works written by scholars from his own clan, in whose footsteps he follows. He is an accomplished scholar in his own right,  receiving a degree from Bamako University in Mali and furthering his studies in Spain.

 Ismael’s collection comprises more than 12 000 manuscripts that are in the process of being properly catalogued. The manuscripts are arranged according to fonds or collections identified by the family member to whom the manuscripts belonged. The oldest manuscript in his collection is that of a Qur’an dating back to the 15th century, which belonged to his ancestor, ‘Ali ibn Ziyad.

Some renowned historians have studied some of these manuscripts and have found them to be an important source of local history. Even manuscripts dealing with strictly religious sciences are sometimes a source of local history by virtue of commentary on local events written in the very wide margins of such texts

Fondo Ka'ti library.

TOMBOUCTOU MANUSCRIPT LIBRARIES - THE MAMMA HAIDARA MEMORIAL LIBRARY.

The Mamma Haidara Memorial Library

The Mamma Haidara Library was started by Abdul Kader Haidara, former employee of the Ahmed Baba Institute (IHERI-AB). After leaving the centre he devoted all of his time and energy to preserve his own family’s manuscript collection and was successful in setting up the Mamma Haidara Memorial Library, which was the first of its kind in Mali.

The Haidara family is renowned for its scholars and judges. Abdul Kader’s father, Mamma Haidara, was not only a Qadi (judge), but also a scholar who taught classical Islamic sciences such as Jurisprudence and Arabic Grammar. His personal library dates back to the 16th century and is one of the largest and oldest collections in the city.

This library was established by Mamma Haidara’s forebear, Mohamed El Mawlud, and was handed down to his descendents, generation after generation. Mamma Haidara added to it substantially, buying manuscripts while studying in Egypt and Sudan. He also studied under local scholars in the village learning centres of Arawan and Boujbeyha, procuring manuscripts there as well. In addition to his Timbuktu library, Mamma Haidara had also established an archive in the village of Bamba.

Mamma Haidara’s efforts were by no means restricted to the collation and preservation of manuscripts. He also established collaborative relationships with other manuscript libraries in the region, facilitating research and exchange. When Mamma Haidara died in 1981, he not only left behind a tremendous legacy for his son, Abdul Kader, but also a passion for manuscripts and an education in basic cataloguing and conservation skills.

Abdul Kader began cataloguing his inherited collection and was assisted by the al-Furqan Heritage Foundation in London, which agreed to publish his catalogue. Currently four of the projected five volumes in the catalogue have been published. Abdul Kader has also been actively involved in assisting other collection holders in setting up their own libraries. He has given much guidance and assistance to Ismael Diadié Haidara, a close relative whose mother hails from the Haidara clan, and who has also managed to establish his own private library, The Timbuktu Andalusian Library.

Mamma Haidara Memorial Library Entrance gate.

TOMBOUCTOU MANUSCRIPT LIBRARIES - AHMED BABA INSTITUTE OF HIGHER LEARNING AND ISLAMIC RESEARCH.

Ahmed Baba Institute of Higher Learning and Islamic Research (IHERI-AB)

The government of Mali had instituted the Ahmed Baba Centre for Documentation and Research (CEDRAB-the abbreviated title it is generally referred to in French) in Timbuktu in 1973. The origins of the centre go back to a meeting convened by Unesco, in 1967 in Timbuktu, when planning its multi-volume history of Africa. At the end of the meeting a resolution was passed calling on the government of Mali to establish a centre for the preservation of Arabic manuscripts in Timbuktu. The centre was built primarily with funding received from Kuwait and immediately began its collection of manuscripts.

The Ahmed Baba Institute of Higher Learning and Islamic Research, as it is now known, currently holds about 30 000 manuscripts, collected through the efforts of some outstanding individuals, including Dr Mahmoud Zubayr, the centre’s first director, and Abdul Kader Haidara, who started out working for CEDRAB, before going on to establish his family's private library. This number of manuscripts is still a conservative quantity, considering the estimated number of extant manuscripts in the region. The Al-Furqan Islamic Heritage Foundation has already published a catalogue, incomplete as yet, listing about 9000 manuscripts from the CEDRAB collection.

Building The Library

In the period between 1973 and 1984 CEDRAB had only managed to acquire 3500 manuscripts. In 1984, Abdul Kader joined CEDRAB and, because of his potential and his influential family background, was given the task of gathering more manuscripts. His search began in Timbuktu, where, despite facing many difficulties, he contacted family members, buying what he could. He would sometimes pay US$200 for a single-page document and sometimes US$300 for a complete manuscript. The value of the manuscripts varied, but in general, history manuscripts were the most valuable, followed by ornate manuscripts, complete works that were very old, works of local scholarship, historical and political correspondence and, lastly, undated and anonymous manuscripts.

This search for manuscripts was then extended to the surrounding areas of Timbuktu. These expeditions in the outer regions extended from 1984 to 1987. Abdul Kader went to great lengths to accommodate manuscript owners, sometimes even buying them livestock, which would have been more valuable to some, than paying them with money. His success in the villages was outstanding. In some cases he collected 2000 manuscripts from a single village.

The manuscripts at the Ahmed Baba Institute were also sourced from all over Mali and as far as the borders of Mauritania, Burkina Faso, Senegal, Guinea, Niger, Algeria and the Ivory Coast. Abdul Kader’s immense efforts were essential in this acquisition of 16 000 manuscripts for the centre, between 1984 and 2002.

The current director of the institute is Dr Mohammed Gallah Dicko.

The New Ahmed Baba Institute

In 2009, the new building of the Ahmed Baba Institute was officially opened. It is the product of a bi-lateral agreement between the South African and Malian governments, which began in 2001, after former South African president, Thabo Mbeki’s visit to Timbuktu. The building is one of several conditions of the agreement, all of which aim to promote the conservation, research and promotion of the manuscripts as African heritage. The new building not only contains state-of-the-art resources for the proper storage and preservation of the manuscripts, but also has facilities for researchers, including conference rooms and a lecture theatre, a library and accommodation for researchers from abroad.

TOMBOUCTOU MANUSCRIPTS.

Manuscript Libraries

 The importance of the effort of preserving the Timbuktu manuscripts and its potential impact upon the fields of African Studies and African History cannot be over-emphasised. Colonial historiography has always held that Africa had few written languages and as such, the only reliable sources of knowledge on the pre-colonial period were archaeology and oral history. However, even these sources were rather tenuous, since archaeological findings date back to hundreds of thousands of years and oral history may only be able to stretch back about a hundred years.

Crucial to the preservation of the Timbuktu manuscripts are the libraries that have been established in the town. The first official manuscript library to be founded was the Ahmed Baba Institute, opened in 1973 under its former name, Centre de Documentation et de Recherches Ahmed Baba (CEDRAB). From the 1990s, private libraries began to be established in Timbuktu. Today, there are 21 such libraries and five of these are easily accessible by the public.

While all libraries act as secure repositories for these manuscripts, some are currently more actively involved in preservation and digitisation efforts than others. In certain libraries, it is possible to watch how manuscript paper is fortified to last longer and how researchers capture images of the manuscripts, creating a digital archive. The difference between those libraries involved in such activities and others that are not, is mainly their access to training and resources.

HISTORY OF TOMBOUCTOU.

Timbuktu’s history

The Niger River, Timbuktu

Although the city of Timbuktu was established in the 12th century and became an important commercial centre, it only gained widespread prominence as an intellectual capital in the 15th century. Chroniclers mention that the city has its roots in a nomadic summer camp set up a few miles from the river Niger, as a base from which they could pasture and water their camels during the period of intense heat. This position proved strategic for commerce and soon attracted many settlers. The settlement was important not only because of its location at the junction of the dry Sahara and the lush central valley of the river Niger, but because the river itself constituted an easy pathway for transporting goods to and from the more tropical regions of West Africa. Thus merchants settled there early on and were subsequently followed by Muslim scholars much later, after the establishment of a permanent community.

The population of Timbuktu was always mixed. Although founded by the Imagharen Tuareg, it was settled by Arabs from various Saharan oases, by Soninke merchants and scholars, Songhai, initially as conquerors, and by Fulani pastoralists. Today Songhai is still the dominant language, but Arabic and Tamasheq are also widely used.

The city is not mentioned in Arabic sources until Ibn Battuta’s visit in the early 14th century. In about 1325 the Malian ruler, Mansa Musa, visited the city on his way back from pilgrimage and erected a residence there as well as the Great Mosque (Jingere-Ber). With the decline of the Malian empire by the end of the 14th century the city came under the control of a group of Tuareg, but they were finally driven out in 1468 when the city was incorporated into the rising Songhai Empire under Sonni ‘Ali.

The 16th century, in particular the reign of Askia al-Hajj Muhammad (1493 – 1528), saw Timbuktu reach its political and intellectual “golden era”. Askia Muhammad was a great patron of scholars and the historical chronicles of the region, the Ta’rikh al-Sudan and the Ta’rikh al-Fattash, praise him as a pious and learned leader, who listened to the advice of the scholars.

Books were always an important part of the local culture and manuscripts were sold and copied from early on. Under the patronage of the Songhai Empire (1468 – 1591) local intellectual activity flourished and Timbuktu’s scholars began writing their own books on religious and secular subjects, in addition to commentaries on classical works. Timbuktu was also a centre for trade in books in the 16th century. Leo Africanus (al-Hasan ibn Muhammad al-Wazzan al-Zayyati) gives a glowing account of the book trade during his visit to the city in the early years of that century. Manuscripts were imported to Timbuktu from North Africa and Egypt and scholars going on pilgrimage to Mecca often copied texts there and in Cairo on their way back, to add to their own libraries. There was also an active copying industry in Timbuktu itself.

Memorial to Ahmad Baba, Timbuktu

It is reported that Askia Daoud, who reigned from 1548 to 1583, established public libraries in the kingdom. Furthermore, a characteristic feature of the scholarly elite was the establishment of personal libraries, a passion that has persisted up until today. Ahmed Baba (1556 – 1627), one of Timbuktu’s most celebrated scholars, is reported to have said that his personal library of more than 1600 volumes was one of the smaller collections amongst the city’s scholars.

Timbuktu’s golden era was abruptly halted by the Moroccan invasion in 1591, initiated by the Sa’dian ruler of Morocco, Mawlay Ahmed al-Mansur. The intellectual and commercial importance of Timbuktu gradually began to decline after the invasion. Just one of the victims of this invasion was Ahmed Baba, who was exiled with his entire family to Morocco (1593 – 1608). In addition, much of his extensive library was destroyed.

In time the city’s military rulers shook off ties with the Sa’dians, who were themselves beset with problems due to the death of Ahmed al-Mansur. A weak state was maintained thereafter around the Niger River from Jenne to Bamba, with the headquarters at Timbuktu. As a result, the city was beset with severe hardships in the centuries that followed and intellectual activity waned considerably. The city very briefly came under Fulani control in the first half of the 19th century but was finally occupied by the French in 1894. French rule lasted until Malian independence in 1960.

Veneration of the written word had however found a secure place in the hearts of Timbuktu’s inhabitants from very early on and scholarly elites and lay people alike held fast to whatever manuscripts they came to possess. Today, it is estimated that there are about 300 000 extant manuscripts in circulation in Timbuktu and the surrounding areas. Locked within these pages is one of Africa’s greatest intellectual legacies. Fortunately, the keepers of this treasure are extremely committed to their culture of learning and sharing. Through the efforts of these “desert librarians”, this legacy is once again being rediscovered.

          Niger River in Tombouctou.

OLD ISLAMIC PICTURES FROM THE ARCHIVES.